A collection of 19th century Continental microscopes
and related items

Microscope by Bernardino Marzoli (1748-1835) with an achromatic plano-convex objective lens ground according to his 1808 paper "Sul modo di costruire le lenti acromatiche obbiettive dei microscopi composti".
The base has an intriguing signature: "Domenico Coccoli Fécit e inv. in Brixia". Domenico Cocoli (1747-1812) was a mathematics professor at the Lyceum of Brescia, from 1797 until at least 1807. In 1805 and 1808, Marzoli was recorded as "Conservatore del Gabinetto di Fisica" at the very same institution. The ink signature is not in the handwriting of Cocoli. Moreover, Cocoli invariably wrote his surname as "Cocoli" and not as "Coccoli". It therefore appears that the signature is incorrect.
The open circular base may have allowed a transformation into a solar microscope by mounting it onto a camera obscura. Marzoli exhibited such a combination in 1825 and donated it 1834.

Early example of Fraunhofer's box-mounted achromatic microscope, made between November 1812 and February 1814. Signed on the stage "Utzschneider, Reichenbach, Fraunhofer in Bendictbeurn [sic]".
With the publication of his 1811 price list, Joseph Fraunhofer (1787-1826) was the first to truly commercialise an achromatic microscope. In fact, this list only offered one single compound microscope that was either available with uncorrected "einfachen Linsen" (E: simple lenses) or more expensive "achromatischen Linsen". The objective lenses of this microscope are achromatic and of a type nowadays named after Fraunhofer: an air-spaced bi-convex doublet.
As with all pre-Selligue dioptric achromatic microscopes, Fraunhofer’s were of low power and no real improvement over an uncorrected compound microscope.

Reflecting or catadioptric microscope by G. B. Amici (1786-1863). Signed on the end of the tube: "Amici, Modena".
As it proved impossible to grind exceedingly small lenses with the required accuracy to form an achromatic pair, in 1812 Amici turned his attention to the construction of reflecting microscopes. Reflectors are in principle free of aberrations, but difficult to fabricate. By 1818, Amici had developed a standardised form of his reflecting microscope, which he sold in quite considerable numbers. This reflecting microscope truly represented an improvement over the uncorrected compound microscope.
It was only after being acquainted with Fresnel's 1824 favourable report on Selligue's microscope that Amici returned his attention to the fabrication of achromatic lens-pairs and eventually abolished the production of reflecting microscopes in 1829.

Selligue microscope by Vincent Chevalier, modernised by Hugh Powell in the early 1830s. Signed on the tube "Selon M[onsieu]r Selligue, par Vincent Chevalier ainé, Ing[énieu]r Opt[ici]en Breveté, quai de L'horloge № 69 à Paris."
After returning from Geneva to his hometown Paris, Alexandre François Gilles a.k.a. Selligue (1784-1845), presented on April 5th 1824 to the French Academy of Sciences an achromatic microscope of "great simplicity. It is made up of two achromatic objectives which can be used simultaneously or separately". It was Selligue's explicit wish to make a microscope "that can be compared with that of Mr. Amici in all respects and does not have a single component that can not be made in all ordinary optical workshops." It was the 'ordinary optical workshop' of Vincent Chevalier that made the microscope presented by Selligue to the Academy.

Selligue microscope by Cauchoix. Signed on the tube "Cauchoix Opticien, à Paris."
In the introduction of the 1824 report on Selligue's achromatic microscope, Augustin Fresnel expressed his surprise that "up till now opticians have not applied achromatic combinations to microscopes, which they have been using for a long time for telescopes". Fresnel concluded that "Even though the new microscope is not equal to that of Amici in all respects, it nevertheless renders an important service to science by providing an instrument almost as perfect [...] that can be produced by ordinary methods, and which costs only 340 francs, while the price of the microscopes of Amici is 800 francs."
The present microscope shows that one of the two major Parisian manufacturers of achromatic telescopes - Cauchoix - did take up the production of achromatic microscopes after Selligue paved the way.

Horizontal microscope by Vincent & Charles Chevalier, in contemporary literature referred to as 'microscope d'Amici' (Amici type microscope). Signed on the tube "Vincent & C. Chevalier Ing[énieu]rs Opt[icie]ns, Quai de l'horloge № 69 à Paris" and on the tube cradle "CH. CHEVALIER, 154"

Signed: "Trécourt & Georges Oberhaeuser, Place Dauphine № 19, Paris".
In about 1830, Trécourt formed a partnership with Oberhaeuser (mechanic), Magnien and Bouquet (opticians) to make a cheap achromatic microscope. With great success: batch numbers on these microscopes are as high as 50, indicating that they were produced in large series.
In 1848, Oberhaeuser wrote to Pieter Harting: "if I ever rendered a service to science, it was by being the first to make inexpensive microscopes, so that scientists who are usually not rich can more easily open their wallet".

Signed on the drum base "Brevet d'Invention, Trécourt & Georges Oberhaeuser, Place Dauphine № 19 à Paris". Trécourt and Oberhaeuser took out a patent for this 'microscope à tourbillon' in 1837.

In chronological order from left to right. The first four are signed on the drum base "Brevet d'Invention, Trécourt & Georges Oberhaeuser, Place Dauphine № 19 à Paris". The fourth bears an additional signature by its retailer: "A. Abraham, Liverpool.". The last one is signed on the arm: "Trécourt, & Georges Oberhaeuser, Place Dauphine № 19 à Paris. Brevet d'Invention, Microscope, Platine à Tourbillon."

Signed on the tube "Georges Oberhaeuser, Place Dauphine № 19, à Paris". Comes with two letters from Oberhaeuser to Eduard Weber (1811-1871), who obtained in 1839 the degree of medical doctor in Heidelberg.
In the first letter of 9 April 1840, Oberhaeuser refers to this stand as "Körpermikroscop mit einer größerer Platte" (E: tubular microscope with a larger stage) or "microscope coudé" (E: horizontal microscope). In addition, Oberhaeuser writes "I still have some of the 12 camera lucida that I made at once". Contrary to an ordinary Oberhaeuser-type camera lucida, the example in this set comes with a protective cap that has no screw-end. This cap proves impractical and failed to protect the prism from damage.

Charles Chevalier named this pocket-sized instrument 'microscope diamant', because of its "small size and magnificent effect". Signed on the tube "Charles Chevalier, Palais Royal 163, Paris".

These two small drum microscopes indicate that for some time Oberhaeuser was simultaneously selling microscopes under the name of his partnership with Trécourt and his name alone.
The microscope on the left is signed on the tube "Georges Oberhaeuser Place Dauphine, 19, Paris." and stamped on the base "644". The serial number 644 is also stamped onto the box.
The microscope on the right is signed on the base "TRÉCOURT ET GEORGES OBERHAEUSER, INGÉNIEURS BREVETÉS, PLACE DAUPHINE 19, PARIS. № 656".

Midsize drum microscope signed on one side of the arm "Georges Oberhaeuser, Ingénieur, Opticien, breveté, Place Dauphine, 19, Paris." and on the other side "Microscope achromatique. Platine à tourbillon. Eclairage à rayons parallèles. Diaphragme à mouvement vertical.". Confusingly, the top of the round base is signed "№ 696", while the bottom of the base is marked in ink "№ 969.". The box is stamped "969".
The nameplate on top of the box is signed in Gothic script "Dr. G. Boudet.", probably added at a slightly later date. Most likely referring to Marie-Claude-Gabriel Boudet (1829-1913) who obtained in 1856 the degree of medical doctor in Paris and returned to his birthplace Limoges.

Large drum microscope signed on one side of the arm "Georges Oberhaeuser." and on the other side "Place Dauphine, 19 à Paris.". The top of the round base is signed "№ 994" and the bottom of the base is marked in ink "№ 994". The box is stamped "994".
This microscope originates from the pharmacy of Edouard Mercier (c. 1845 – c. 1912) in Nantua (Ain), which was taken over in 1914 by Jules Carrier (1881-1958). A grandchild of the latter sold the present microscope to this collection. Edouard Mercier took over the pharmacy of his father Benjamin Mercier (1811-1868), who obtained in 1836 the degree of pharmacist in Lyon.

Microscope designed by Filippo Pacini and manufactured by Amici for George John Warren Vernon (1803-1866). When visiting Amici's workshop in Florence, Lord Vernon noticed Pacini's microscope being constructed (at present in the Museo Galileo, Florence) and asked Amici to make a second example.

Simple dissecting microscope by Nachet. Signed: "NACHET, Opticien, rue des Grands Augustins N°1". This stand is described and illustrated by Charles Robin in his 1849 book 'Du microscope et des injections' (pl. II, fig. 2, p. 60): "The base described and illustrated here fulfils far more the preceding conditions [...] than stands mounted onto the box which have to contain them".

On the left is a large drum-style microscope with revolving body, for which Trécourt and Oberhäuser obtained a patent in 1837. This design was initiated by Hercule Straus-Durckheim for anatomical research.
Second is a circa 1842 example that shows some simplification: abolishment of the rack and pinion focus and the upper body could no longer swivel sideways.
The third is a horseshoe shape base microscope for which Oberhäuser received a patent in 1849. The base of the drum pattern was opened up to accept light from different angles.
On the right is a circa 1862 example showing the final steps taken by Hartnack in the development of the so-called Continental stand: introduction of a joint for inclination and coarse focusing by rack and pinion.

The pocket microscope - mounted on top of its cylinder container - and the midsize model are both signed on the tube: "Brunner à Paris". The large model is signed on the tube: "Brunner, à Paris, 34, Rue des Bernardins".

Large horseshoe base microscope. Signed on the arm "Georges Oberhaeuser" and "Place Dauphine, 19, Paris.". The tube is signed "№ 1879 breveté s[ans]. g[arantie].".
On 4 July 1849, Oberhaeuser requested a patent for a "microscope achromatique, à miroir mobile, donnant la lumière verticale et à toutes les obliquités, avec platine à mouvement circulaire fonctionnant sans déplacement de son axe optique", which he obtained on 17 September 1849.
According to Oberhaeuser, it was Abraham Abraham of Liverpool who brought "microscopes with mirrors outside of the optical axis" to his attention in 1846 and he "immediately started to make them". First described by Hugo von Mohl in his 1846 book 'Mikrographie' pp. 142-3.

Early Silbermann heliostat by Jules Duboscq. Signed on the drum: "J. T. Silbermann invtr. J. Duboscq - Soleil fecit. Paris, № 52" and on the clockwork: "PAUL GARNIER PARIS 2942".

Dissecting microscope designed by Charles Robin with a tripod base conceived by Henri de Lacaze-Duthiers. Signed on the arm: "NACHET, Opticien, à Paris, Rue Serpente, 16". On pp. 68-9 of his 1849 book 'Du microscope et des injections' Robin observed: "As one of the arms of the [tripod] base is always directed towards the observer, it forces to lean forward to place the eye against the eyepiece, which renders it slightly more tiresome". The introduction of an inclined tube in the present microscope solved this problem. Prototype originating from the Nachet family.

Signed on the arm: "NACHET, Opticien, à Paris, rue Serpente, 16".
In 1850, Nachet constructed Pieter Harting’s "volledige verlichtingstoestel" (E: complete illuminating device), which included a mirror on an articulated arm and a moveable condenser carrier.
To implement Harting's substage illuminating device, Nachet introduced a new stand mounted on Roman pillars with a horseshoe foot. This design would become emblematic for Nachet and remain in use until well into the 1920s.
This prototype of the new large model differs from later examples by having a more complicated articulated arm holding the mirror and slightly different Roman pillars with a more elaborate base, including two toruses instead of one.

The microscope of Alphonse Gérard de Rayneval (1813-1858), French ambassador to the Vatican from 1850 to 1857.
In 1868, Socrate Cadet recalled that his 1854 microscopic observations on cholera were confirmed by "conte Alfonso di Rayneval in quel periodo ambasciadore di Francia presso la Sede Pontificia", to whom he referred as a "caldo coltivatore delle scienze naturali". It therefore appears that count de Rayneval put to use his microscope.

In 1852, the self-described "grand agitateur scientifique, rentier, physicien et homme de lettres" Achille Brachet (1820 - c. 1904) offered Amici no less than 2000 francs to make his best microscope ever. Amici eventually sold Brachet this 800 francs microscope with six series of phenomenal objectives.
Brachet - who modelled himself on Marin Mersenne - ended up 'stalking' Amici, sending him letters under false names, causing Amici to classify Brachet as a "pazzo" and "testa sconvolta". In 1856, Brachet published a booklet on this microscope, which Pieter Harting in 1858 rightfully described as "tamelijk zonderling" (E: quite odd).

Early example of Nachet's 'large model' microscope. The working instrument of Frederick William Pavy (1829-1911). Signed on the arm: "NACHET, Opticien, à Paris, rue Serpente, 16" and on the case: "Dr F. W. Pavy". In 1853, like many British medical men, Pavy went to study medicine in Paris and returned to London the following year. This microscope dates from exactly that period.

Most likely the microscope ordered by Antonio Manganotti for an unidentified friend. It comes with three series of objectives, of which one is for water immersion. It was this type of crude and humble microscope that Amici brought with him when he visited the 1855 Paris Exhibition and introduced his water immersion objective to the world.

Prototype of Nachet's 'large perfected model', most likely made for Frédéric Villot, curator of the Louvre Museum. Signed on the base: "NACHET ET FILS, Rue Serpente, 16, Paris". This prototype of the 'grand modèle perfectionné' includes quite a number of novelties, of which many did not survive in the production version. The coarse focusing is not by the usual rack and pinion, but by a chain winding round a spindle controlled by the wheels.

Early example of Nachet's 'large perfected model'. Signed on the base: "NACHET ET FILS, Rue Serpente, 16, Paris". Contrary to the prototype, in this production version the square vertical limb contains a rack and not a fusee chain. In addition, the body-tube arm and the tube can no longer be detached.

At the end of his life, Giovanni Battista Amici (1786-1863) started to manufacture this 'microscopio tascabile' (E: pocket microscope), hoping that "a portable microscope, with a volume as reduced as possible, with sufficient optical force, accessible to those with limited funds and made popular, would render useful services, especially in medicine and the natural sciences". Thirty years earlier, Georges Oberhaeuser combined the very same ingredients (drum stand and good optics) when he introduced his 'microscope achromatique réduit'. However, when compared to Oberhaeuser's small drum microscope, Amici's pocket microscope is just half in size (13 cm).
The present example comes with a box in the form of a coffin.

After taking over Oberhäuser's workshop in 1860, Hartnack continued to manufacture Oberhäuser's models, all characterized by simplicity. The present microscope with serial number 4156 and signature "E. Hartnack, suc[cesseu]r de G. Oberhaeuser, Place Dauphine, 21, Paris. Breveté s[ans]. g[aranti]. d[u]. g[ouvernement]." demonstrates that in about 1862 Hartnack did find the courage to re-design Oberhäuser's large model, while still offering for sale the original model.
Below the stage Hartnack introduced a joint to allow the upper body to recline, which required the fine focusing screw to move from the bottom to the top of the pillar. Coarse adjustment by hand was replaced by rack and pinion, by means of two English design features. The tube is supported by a Lister limb and has a Jackson groove into which the focusing rack fitted.

Early Zeiss microscope modelled after Oberhaeuser's horseshoe model. Signed on the arm "N. 155. Carl Zeiss Jena.". While manufactured in November 1863, it was only three years later, on 4 October 1866, that this microscope was supplied to the Belgian biologist Jean Baptiste Carnoy (1836-1899) in Tournai. Carnoy studied in Jena and came in touch with Zeiss.
It was only as late as in 1857 that Zeiss started to make compound microscopes.

At first sight this is an ordinary binocular microscope by Nachet, but in reality it is a mineralogical microscope. Signed on the base: "NACHET ET FILS, 17, rue S[ain]t Séverin, Paris" and "GEOL. DEPT. U.C.D. DUBLIN 23". The vertical tube has a slot at its lower end allowing the introduction of an analyser. When of no use, the analyser in the vertical tube no longer had to be removed, thanks to the presence of a second inclined tube. In addition, the microscope comes with a rotating graduated stage suited for mineralogical research.

Circa 1877 petrological microscope by Nachet. Signed on the base: "NACHET ET FILS, 17, rue S[ain]t Séverin, Paris". The analyser was placed at the lower end of the internal tube and difficult to remove. Just above the objective, one finds an intriguing revolver holding different Bertrand lenses, allowing the use of convergent light.

Circa 1879 petrological microscope by Nachet. Signed on the base: "NACHET ET FILS, 17, rue S[ain]t Séverin, Paris". This model represents a slightly improved design allowing the analyser to be freely removed from the tube. An absolutely identical instrument was used by the famous mineralogist Evgraf Stepanovich Fedorov and is depicted in his 1893 work 'Теодолитный метод в минералогии и петрографии' (Theodolite method in mineralogy and petrology).

An early mid-size mineralogical microscope by Nachet. Signed on the base: "NACHET, 17, rue S[ain]t Séverin, Paris" and in the same script "Fac[ulté] des Sciences, Lab[oratoire] de Minéralogie, Lyon".